Summary
Chapter-8
British Rule in India The British conquest of Indian territories and imposition of new laws and administrative institutions significantly impacted the lives of peasants, tribals, and other classes. Educational reforms, debates on women’s condition, challenges to the caste system, and social and religious reforms shaped the socio-political landscape. The 1857 revolt marked a significant upheaval against British rule, followed by changes in the economic structure with the decline of crafts and the rise of industries.
Emergence of Nationalism These developments led Indians to question the essence of India and its ownership. The realization emerged that India belonged to all its people, regardless of class, caste, or creed. Political associations formed after 1850, led by English-educated professionals, articulated the desire for Indian sovereignty and self-determination. Notably, associations like the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the Indian National Congress emphasized the collective goals of all Indians, transcending regional and class boundaries.
Intensified Discontent Dissatisfaction with British rule grew in the 1870s and 1880s due to oppressive laws such as the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act, which curtailed freedoms. The controversy surrounding the Ilbert Bill in 1883, aimed at granting Indians equal legal rights, highlighted racial biases and further enraged Indians. These events deepened the desire for an all-India organization of educated Indians, leading to the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885.
Formation of Indian National Congress The Indian National Congress, formed by 72 delegates from across India in December 1885, aimed to unify Indians and empower them to make decisions regarding their affairs. Early leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and others, guided by the principles of sovereignty and self-determination, played crucial roles in mobilizing Indians against British rule. A retired British official, A.O. Hume, also contributed to bringing together Indians from various regions.
“A Nation in the Making” signifies a society’s evolution and self-definition
Demand for Representation and Indianisation During its initial two decades, the Congress pursued moderate objectives and methods. It aimed for greater Indian representation in government and administration, advocating for more inclusive Legislative Councils, higher positions for Indians in government, and civil service examinations to be held in India. This demand for Indianisation was a response to racial discrimination and aimed to reduce the dominance of white officials while curbing the economic drain to England.
Focus on Economic Issues The early Congress also addressed economic grievances, attributing poverty and famines to British rule. It called for a reduction in land revenue, military expenditure, and advocated for more irrigation funds. Additionally, it voiced concerns about the salt tax, mistreatment of Indian laborers abroad, and the plight of forest dwellers under forest administration.
Efforts to Raise Public Awareness Moderate leaders utilized newspapers, articles, speeches, and public mobilization to highlight the injustices of British rule and promote awareness among the Indian populace. They believed in the ideals of freedom and justice upheld by the British and sought to express just demands to the government, hoping for a favorable response. Their strategy focused on making the government aware of Indian sentiments through organized representation and public expression.
Repeal
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To undo law; to officially end the validity of something such as a law.
In pursuit of gold
This is what a Moderate leader, Dinshaw Wacha, wrote to Naoroji in 1887:
P h e r o z e s h a h i snowadays too busy with his personal work … They are already r i c h e n o u g h … M r . T e l a n g t o o
r e m a i n s b u s y . I wonder how if all remain busy in the pursuit of gold can the progress of the country be advanced?
Freedom is our birthright
By the 1890s, Indian leaders like Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai began to challenge the Congress’ moderate approach. They criticized the Moderates for their passive politics and advocated for self-reliance and constructive action, urging people to fight for swaraj, or self-rule. Tilak famously declared, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!” In 1905, the British partitioned Bengal, which sparked widespread outrage across India. Both Moderates and Radicals within the Congress opposed this move, leading to the emergence of the Swadeshi movement, particularly strong in Bengal but with echoes elsewhere. This movement aimed to oppose British rule and promote self-help, national education, and the use of Indian goods and languages.
Additionally, in 1906, Muslim landlords and nawabs formed the All India Muslim League, which supported the partition of Bengal and advocated for separate electorates for Muslims. The Congress split in 1907 over the issue of boycott, with the Moderates opposing it, fearing it would lead to violence. However, the two factions reunited in 1915. The following year, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact, committing to work together for representative government in India.
Notice the name of the newspaper that lies on the table. Kesari, a Marathi newspaper edited by Tilak, became one of the strongest critics of British rule.
After 1919, the anti-British movement in India escalated into a widespread uprising, drawing in a broad spectrum of society including peasants, tribals, students, women, and sporadically, factory workers. This surge in participation was spurred by the profound economic and political transformations triggered by World War I. The war-induced rise in defense spending led to heightened taxes, disproportionately burdening the common populace while affording lucrative opportunities for select business entities. Concurrently, the surge in demand for industrial goods during the war fostered the expansion of Indian industries, cultivating support for nationalist agendas among certain business circles. Additionally, the war compelled the British administration to enlarge their military presence, coercing rural communities to supply soldiers for foreign service. The return of many soldiers with newfound awareness of imperialism sparked a growing dissent against colonial rule. Moreover, the resonance of the 1917 Russian revolution, characterized by its advocacy for socialist principles and workers’ rights, ignited a fervent nationalist sentiment among Indian activists, further propelling the struggle for independence.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Emergence
Amidst the backdrop of escalating discontent against British rule, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a pivotal leader in India. Having gained renown for his non-violent resistance against racial injustices in South Africa, Gandhi arrived in India in 1915 at the age of 46. His experiences in South Africa had acquainted him with the diversity of Indian society, encompassing Hindus, Muslims, Parsis, Christians, and various regional and socio-economic groups. Gandhi’s initial year in India was spent acquainting himself with the people and their concerns, engaging in local movements alongside leaders like Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha
Gandhi’s influence began to manifest in earnest with his call for satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act in 1919. This Act, viewed as draconian and oppressive, curtailed fundamental freedoms and expanded police powers. Gandhi, along with Mohammad Ali Jinnah and others, denounced the Act as tyrannical and called for non-violent resistance on April 6, 1919. The ensuing Rowlatt Satyagraha marked the first nationwide struggle against British rule, albeit primarily confined to urban centers. The government’s brutal suppression of protests culminated in the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, catalyzing widespread outrage. Throughout the Satyagraha, Gandhi emphasized Hindu-Muslim unity, envisioning India as a land for all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, and advocating mutual support among communities in the fight against colonialism. Upon hearing about the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore demonstrated the nation’s anguish and indignation by relinquishing his knighthood.
Khilafat Agitation and Non-Cooperation Movement
The Khilafat issue, a treaty imposed on the Turkish Sultan by the British in 1920, sparked widespread anger among Indians, particularly Muslims who were concerned about the fate of Muslim sacred places in the Ottoman Empire. Leaders like Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, spearheading the Khilafat agitation, joined forces with Mahatma Gandhi to launch a comprehensive Non-Cooperation Movement. This movement gained traction in 1921-22, witnessing mass withdrawals from government institutions, boycotts of British titles and legislatures, and public bonfires of foreign cloth. While it initially began as a response to specific grievances, it evolved into a formidable revolt against British rule.
The eternal law of suffering
Mahatma Gandhi,
W h a t d i d M a h a t m a Gandhi mean by ahimsa (non-violence)? How could ahimsa become the basis of struggle?
This is what Gandhiji said: Non-violence comes to us through doing good continually without the slightest expectation of return. … That is the indispensable lesson in non-violence … In South Africa … I succeeded in learning the eternal law of suffering as the only remedy for undoing wrong and injustice. It means positively the law of non-violence. You have to be prepared to suffer cheerfully at the hands of all and sundry and you will wish ill to no one, not even to those who may have wronged you.
12 March 1938
People’s Initiatives
Throughout India, people responded to Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation in diverse ways, often aligning their movements with local grievances. In Gujarat’s Kheda district, Patidar peasants organized non-violent protests against oppressive land revenue demands. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed, while tribals and peasants in Andhra staged “forest satyagrahas” to challenge restrictions on forest resource usage. In Punjab, the Akali agitation sought to remove corrupt mahants from gurdwaras, aligning with the Non-Cooperation Movement. Meanwhile, in Assam, tea garden laborers demanded higher wages, invoking Gandhi’s name to assert their demands. These initiatives underscored the widespread influence of Gandhi, albeit with varied interpretations and applications of his ideals.
Mahants: Religious officials who hold administrative positions in Sikh gurdwaras, responsible for managing religious affairs and often wielding significant influence.
Illegal Eviction: The unjust and forcible removal of tenants from the land they rent, typically carried out unlawfully by landlords without due process or legal justification.
The Non-Cooperation Movement: A Turning Point
The Non-Cooperation Movement, spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi, encountered a critical juncture in 1922 with the Chauri Chaura incident. Following violence that resulted in the death of policemen, Gandhi abruptly halted the movement. This decision underscored his unwavering commitment to non-violence, prompting a shift towards constructive rural work as advocated by Gandhi’s followers. However, other leaders, such as Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru, pushed for political participation through council elections to influence government policies.
Rise of New Political Forces
Amidst these developments, the mid-1920s witnessed the emergence of significant political entities. The formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India introduced diverse ideologies into the Indian political landscape. Additionally, the renowned revolutionary nationalist Bhagat Singh rose to prominence during this period, contributing to the evolving political discourse.
Towards Complete Independence
As the 1920s drew to a close, the Indian National Congress boldly adopted a resolution for complete independence (Purna Swaraj) in 1929 under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. This milestone was commemorated with the observance of “Independence Day” on January 26, 1930. This pivotal moment laid the groundwork for Mahatma Gandhi’s historic Salt March, which galvanized the nation and symbolized India’s steadfast resolve in the struggle against British colonial rule.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Call for Quit India
In the turbulent period of World War II, Mahatma Gandhi catalyzed a pivotal moment in India’s struggle for independence with the Quit India Movement. This movement, initiated in 1942, fervently demanded the immediate departure of British colonial rulers from Indian soil. Despite Gandhi’s steadfast commitment to non-violence, the movement garnered widespread support, particularly among the disenfranchised segments of society, including peasants and the youth. Their participation manifested in acts of civil disobedience, defiance against colonial symbols of authority, and the establishment of localized forms of self-governance, symbolizing the indomitable spirit of India’s quest for freedom.
July 1946 Gandhiji’s disciple, a Congress Socialist, and an internationalist, Nehru was a leading architect of the national movement and of free India’s economy and polity.Photo Source: wiki
British Repression and Popular Uprising
In response to the burgeoning Quit India Movement, the British colonial administration unleashed a campaign of harsh repression, characterized by widespread arrests and violent crackdowns on peaceful protests. However, these punitive measures failed to quell the burgeoning uprising, which continued to gain momentum across the length and breadth of the country. Despite facing severe repercussions, the Indian populace remained resolute in their determination to secure independence from British rule, underscoring their unwavering commitment to the cause.
The Path to Partition
Against the backdrop of mounting tensions, the demand for autonomy for Muslims gained traction, spearheaded by the All-India Muslim League. Fearing marginalization within a predominantly Hindu-dominated democratic framework, the League asserted the necessity of separate Muslim states in the Indian subcontinent. Failed negotiations between the Congress, the Muslim League, and the British colonial authorities further exacerbated communal divisions, culminating in the tragic partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. This tumultuous period witnessed widespread communal violence and the mass displacement of millions, marking the painful birth of independent India and Pakistan. Thus, while heralding the long-awaited dawn of independence, the journey to liberation was marred by the profound tragedy of Partition.