Summary
Chapter-7
Introduction
Two hundred years ago, children, especially girls, experienced vastly different lives. They often faced early marriages and limited educational opportunities, with entrenched societal norms dictating their roles. Widows were pressured into practices like “sati,” reflecting deeply ingrained gender inequalities.
Society was sharply divided along caste lines, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoying privilege while “untouchables” faced severe discrimination. Access to basic facilities like temples and wells was restricted based on caste, perpetuating social hierarchies.
Despite these challenges, societal attitudes gradually shifted over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Movements advocating for education and women’s rights gained momentum, challenging traditional norms. Simultaneously, efforts against caste discrimination promoted greater social equality and inclusion.
Social Reform Initiatives by Indian Leaders
From the early nineteenth century, discussions on social customs and practices gained momentum, aided by the proliferation of printed materials such as books, newspapers, and pamphlets. These accessible forms of communication facilitated debates on various issues, including social, political, economic, and religious matters, reaching a wider audience and catalyzing movements for social change.
Raja Rammohun Roy and the Brahmo Sabha
Raja Rammohun Roy, a prominent reformer, founded the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta. He advocated for societal changes and the abolition of unjust practices, particularly focusing on women’s rights. Roy sought to promote Western education and advocated for greater freedom and equality for women, challenging the prevailing norms that confined women to domestic roles and denied them access to education.
Photo Source: WikiArt.
Reforming Widowhood Practices
Rammohun Roy played a pivotal role in initiating a campaign against the practice of sati, drawing attention to its absence in ancient texts and garnering support from British officials. His approach of referencing ancient scriptures to challenge harmful practices influenced later reformers, such as Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, who advocated for widow remarriage by citing supportive texts. Despite legal advancements allowing widow remarriage, societal acceptance remained low, with conservative groups opposing the reforms and creating barriers for widows seeking remarriage.
This was one of the many pictures of sati painted by the European artists who came to India. The practice of sati was seen as evidence of the barbarism of the East.
Girls’ Education Movement Begins
In the mid-1800s, reformers like Vidyasagar and Phule started schools for girls, but faced opposition due to fears that education might disrupt traditional domestic roles and corrupt young women. Consequently, many educated women were taught at home by progressive family members or learned independently, like Rashsundari Debi. Later, the Arya Samaj and figures like Jyotirao Phule expanded girls’ education in Punjab and Maharashtra.
In affluent Muslim families, women were instructed in Arabic to read the Quran by visiting teachers. Mumtaz Ali and others reinterpreted Quranic verses to advocate for female education. The emergence of Urdu novels in the late 1800s aimed to promote women’s literacy in religion and household management, using a language accessible to them.
Women’s Advocacy and Empowerment
From the early 20th century, notable Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain played pivotal roles in promoting education among women. They established schools and challenged conservative ideologies. Indian women began entering universities by the 1880s, pursuing careers as doctors and teachers, and engaging in critical discourse on gender roles. Figures like Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai penned influential works critiquing societal disparities and advocating for women’s rights. Despite opposition from orthodox quarters, women actively pursued reform, founding schools, publishing literature, and establishing women’s associations.
As the 20th century progressed, women organized political pressure groups to advance causes like female suffrage, healthcare, and education. They also aligned with nationalist and socialist movements, gaining support from leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. While promises of full suffrage were made for both men and women after Independence, women were urged to prioritize anti-British struggles.
Caste and Social Reform
Various social reformers, including Rammohun Roy and groups like the Prarthana Samaj and Paramhans Mandali, criticized caste inequalities. They challenged caste prejudices through actions like violating food and touch taboos in secret meetings. Additionally, Christian missionaries set up schools for tribal and lower-caste children, providing them with education and opportunities in a changing society.
As industrialization led to urbanization, the poor, often from lower castes, migrated to cities in search of work in factories, municipalities, and other labor-intensive sectors. Many also sought employment in distant locations like plantations and the army, seeing it as a means to escape the oppression of upper-caste landowners and improve their lives. Notably, the Mahar Regiment employed individuals from the Mahar community, including the father of B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent leader of the Dalit movement.
Who could produce shoes?
Leatherworkers have been traditionally held in contempt since they work with dead animals which are seen as dirty and polluting. During the First World War, however, there was a huge demand for shoes for the armies. Caste prejudice against leather work meant that only the traditional leather workers and shoemakers were ready to supply army shoes. So they could ask for high prices and gain impressive profits.
Madigas were an important untouchable caste of present-day Andhra Pradesh. They were experts at cleaning hides, tanning them for use, and sewing sandals
Demands for Equality and Justice
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, movements against caste discrimination gained momentum as Non-Brahman castes organized for social equality and justice. In Central India, the Satnami movement, led by Ghasidas, aimed to uplift leatherworkers’ social status. Similarly, in eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect challenged Brahmanical texts supporting the caste system. Shri Narayana Guru, from the Ezhava caste in present-day Kerala, advocated for unity and equality among all people, regardless of caste distinctions.
Jyotirao Phule emerged as a prominent advocate for social reform. Born in 1827, he criticized Brahmanical claims of superiority, arguing that Aryans were foreigners who subjugated indigenous populations. Phule advocated for unity among Shudras and Ati Shudras to challenge caste discrimination. His Satyashodhak Samaj promoted caste equality, exemplified in his book “Gulamgiri,” dedicated to the abolition of slavery. Phule’s critique extended to all forms of inequality, including the plight of upper-caste women and the exploitation of laborers.
Phule’s legacy was continued in the twentieth century by dalit leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, who advocated for caste reform across India.
Who Could Enter Temples?
Ambedkar, born into a Mahar family, faced caste prejudice from a young age, enduring segregation and discrimination in school. Upon returning to India from the US in 1919, he initiated temple entry movements, challenging caste-based exclusion. Brahman priests were incensed when Dalits used temple facilities. Ambedkar led three such movements between 1927 and 1935 to highlight societal caste biases.
“Untouchables” were not allowed anywhere near such gateways until the temple entry movement began.
In the early 20th century, the non-Brahman movement emerged, led by educated and influential non-Brahman castes. They contested Brahmanical claims to power, asserting that Brahmins were descendants of Aryan invaders who subjugated indigenous Dravidian peoples. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, also known as Periyar, spearheaded the Self Respect Movement, advocating for untouchables’ dignity and challenging Brahmanical authority. He criticized Hindu scriptures for perpetuating caste and gender inequalities.
These movements prompted self-reflection among upper-caste nationalist leaders but also faced opposition from orthodox Hindu groups, who sought to uphold caste distinctions as integral to Hinduism. Debates and struggles over caste persist into contemporary times.
Various reform movements emerged in 19th and early 20th century India, each with distinct goals and methods.
- Brahmo Samaj:
- Founded in 1830, rejecting idol worship and advocating social and religious reforms.
- Embraced ideals from Hinduism and Christianity.
- Young Bengal Movement:
- Led by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio.
- Advocated for questioning traditional authority, education for women, and freedom of expression.
- Ramakrishna Mission:
- Stressed salvation through social service, inspired by teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
- Swami Vivekananda played a significant role in spreading its message globally.
- Prarthana Samaj:
- Established in 1867.
- Focused on eradicating caste restrictions, child marriage, and promoting women’s education and widow remarriage.
- Veda Samaj:
- Founded in 1864.
- Aimed to abolish caste distinctions, promote monotheism, and condemn orthodox Hindu rituals.
- Aligarh Movement:
- Initiated by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875.
- Aimed to provide modern education to Muslims, leading to the establishment of Aligarh Muslim University.
- Singh Sabha Movement:
- Began in 1873.
- Focused on Sikh reform, eliminating superstitions and caste distinctions while promoting education and Sikh teachings.