Summary
Chapter-6
Introduction:
The medieval period in India witnessed a profound transformation in religious thought and practices, marked by the rise of Bhakti and Sufi movements. These spiritual movements transcended conventional boundaries, fostering intense devotion and love for the divine. Originating in the eighth century, these movements challenged established norms and played a crucial role in shaping the socio-religious landscape of the subcontinent. This article explores the evolution of Bhakti and Sufi movements, focusing on key figures, philosophical underpinnings, and their impact on society.
The beginning of Bhakti
Worship of certain deities, which became a central feature of later Hinduism, gained in importance. These deities included Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses such as Durga. These deities were worshipped through Bhakti, an idea that became very popular at this time. Bhakti is generally understood as a person’s devotion to his or her chosen deity. Anybody, whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called ‘high’ or ‘low’ castes, man or woman, could follow the path of Bhakti. The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred book of
the Hindus.
Diverse Spiritual Traditions:
Before the emergence of large kingdoms, diverse groups of people worshiped their own deities, and social stratification based on birth was prevalent. The Bhakti movement, influenced by the teachings of the Buddha and Jaina traditions, emphasized personal effort and devotion to a Supreme God. The idea gained popularity, with Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga emerging as supreme deities, worshipped through elaborate rituals. The Bhakti philosophy asserted that devotees could attain the grace of God irrespective of their caste status, leading to its adoption by Buddhists and Jainas.
Nayanars and Alvars: A New Wave of Bhakti in South India:
The seventh to ninth centuries witnessed the rise of the Nayanars and Alvars, saints devoted to Shiva and Vishnu, respectively. In a departure from traditional social norms, these saints came from various castes, including those considered “untouchable.” Criticizing Buddhism and Jainism, they preached ardent love for Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. Their compositions, including Tevaram, Tiruvacakam, and Divya Prabandham, celebrated the deities and played a pivotal role in integrating local myths into Puranic stories.
| Nayanars and alvars |
| There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable” workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent backgrounds, the best known being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham. |
Bhakti in North India: Ramanuja and Basavanna:
In the north, the Bhakti movement took a different trajectory. Ramanuja, influenced by Alvars, advocated intense devotion to Vishnu and proposed the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita, emphasizing the soul’s distinctiveness even when united with the Supreme God. Basavanna’s Virashaivism in Karnataka rejected ritualism and idol worship, promoting equality and opposing Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.
Bhakti Movement in the Deccan and Maharashtra:
From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra witnessed the emergence of saint-poets like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram. These poets, often from marginalized communities, focused on the Vitthala temple in Pandharpur and propagated a regional tradition of Bhakti. Rejecting ritualism and social differences, they advocated living with families and serving fellow human beings, fostering a new humanist idea that bhakti lies in sharing others’ pain.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis: Critique of Conventional Religion:
Various religious groups in medieval India, including Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis, critiqued conventional religion, advocating renunciation and meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality. Their emphasis on intense mental and physical training, including yogasanas and breathing exercises, resonated with “low” castes and paved the way for devotional religion to become a popular force in northern India.
Islam and Sufism: A Parallel Spiritual Journey:
Parallel to the Bhakti movement, Sufism emerged as a significant force within Islam. Sufis, Muslim mystics, emphasized love, devotion to God, and compassion toward fellow human beings. Rejecting elaborate rituals, Sufis sought union with God through various practices like chanting, singing, dancing, and meditation. Central Asian Sufis, including Ghazzali, Rumi, and Sadi, settled in Hindustan, influencing the spiritual landscape.
Sufi Influence in India: Chishti Silsila and Popular Devotion:
Sufi masters, belonging to the Chishti silsila, established khanqahs or hospices where devotees, including royalty and commoners, sought spiritual guidance. The Sufis’ emphasis on personal devotion and rejection of rigid religious codes resonated with the masses. Miraculous stories attributed to Sufi saints, coupled with their dargahs becoming places of pilgrimage, attracted people of all faiths.
Bhakti in North India: Evolution and Synthesis:
The thirteenth century marked a new wave of the Bhakti movement in North India. Influenced by Islam, Sufism, and various strands of Bhakti, saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Surdas, and Shankaradeva played pivotal roles. Some rejected orthodox religions, while others sought to make existing beliefs accessible to all. Their compositions in regional languages, focusing on equality and devotion, became immensely popular and were transmitted orally across generations.
In Kashmir, the Rishi order of Sufism flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries. This order was established by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali also known as Nund Rishi and had a deep impact on the life of the people in Kashmir. A number of shrines dedicated to Rishi saints can be found in many parts of Kashmir.
Kabir and Guru Nanak: Visionaries of Unity and Equality:
Kabir, from a family of Muslim weavers, vehemently rejected major religious traditions, ridiculing external worship and caste distinctions. His teachings, preserved in sakhis and pads, emphasized devotion to a formless Supreme God and drew followers from both Hindu and Muslim communities.
Guru Nanak, born in the fifteenth century, founded Sikhism, emphasizing the worship of one God and equality irrespective of caste or creed. His successors compiled his teachings in the Guru Granth Sahib, fostering a community (Khalsa Panth) that became a political entity in the seventeenth century.
Conclusion:
The Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India were dynamic expressions of spiritual fervor that transcended traditional boundaries. Influencing society, these movements challenged hierarchical structures, promoted equality, and fostered a personal connection with the divine. The diverse range of saints and mystics, from Nayanars and Alvars to Kabir and Guru Nanak, contributed to a rich tapestry of religious thought and cultural expression. Their legacy endures, shaping the ethos of contemporary India and emphasizing the universality of devotion and love for the divine.