Summary
Chapter-5
Impact on Ruling Elites
Over time, nawabs and rajas saw their authority diminish due to Company interventions such as the stationing of residents, disbandment of armed forces, and territorial and revenue loss. Despite attempts to negotiate, figures like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Nana Saheb faced rejection by the Company, which asserted its supremacy. Awadh’s annexation in 1856 exemplified the imposition of British rule under the guise of misgovernance. The Company also aimed to end the Mughal dynasty, evident in actions like removing the Mughal king’s name from coins and declaring Bahadur Shah Zafar as the last king in 1856.
Challenges Faced by the Commoners
In rural areas, peasants and zamindars resented heavy taxes and strict revenue collection, often resulting in land loss. Indian sepoys employed by the Company were dissatisfied with pay, allowances, and service conditions, aggravated by religious violations like sea travel orders. Refusal led to punishment, prompting the Company to enforce overseas service for new recruits in 1856. Many sepoys, often peasants with village families, sympathized with peasant grievances, fueling widespread discontent.
Reactions to Changes
The British enacted reforms in India, such as outlawing sati and promoting English education. They also permitted Christian missionaries, easing conversion laws. In 1850, a new law facilitated conversion to Christianity, allowing inheritances for Indian converts. Many Indians saw these changes as threats to their religion and traditions, while others advocated for social reform.
A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion
In 1857, a significant uprising erupted in northern India, challenging the dominance of the English East India Company. Starting in Meerut, sepoys mutinied, triggering a widespread rebellion involving people from various societal segments. This event marked one of the largest armed resistances to colonialism globally in the nineteenth century.
From Meerut to Delhi
In April 1857, the hanging of Mangal Pandey for attacking officers sparked tension among Indian soldiers in Barrackpore. Shortly after, sepoys in Meerut refused to use cartridges suspected of being coated with animal fat. This led to the dismissal and imprisonment of 85 sepoys on May 9, 1857. In response, Indian soldiers in Meerut released the prisoners, attacked British officers, seized weapons, and declared war on the British. They rallied behind the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. Riding overnight to Delhi, they incited further rebellion among regiments stationed there. Despite initial reluctance, Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed leader by the insurgents. His endorsement of the rebellion had profound implications, inspiring smaller rulers to challenge British authority and rally under the Mughal banner. The British, caught off guard, underestimated the rebellion’s significance, but Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support shifted the dynamics drastically, offering hope and courage to the insurgents.
The Rebellion Spreads
Following the British defeat in Delhi, a week passed before news spread, sparking a series of mutinies across the region. Regiment after regiment joined insurgent forces at key locations like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow. Soon, towns and villages rose in rebellion, rallying behind local leaders and chiefs. Nana Saheb in Kanpur declared himself Peshwa under Bahadur Shah Zafar’s authority, while Birjis Qadr in Lucknow assumed the role of Nawab, acknowledging the Mughal emperor’s suzerainty. Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai in Jhansi and Rani Avantibai Lodhi in Madhya Pradesh led their forces against the British. With the rebels outnumbering British forces, confidence soared, leading to widespread rebellion, particularly in Awadh. New leaders emerged, such as Ahmadullah Shah in Lucknow and Bakht Khan in Delhi, rallying fighters against British rule. Across Bihar, zamindar Kunwar Singh joined rebel sepoys in prolonged battles against the British, as leaders and fighters from various regions united in the uprising.
The Company Fights Back
In response to the widespread rebellion, the Company intensified its efforts to suppress the uprising. Reinforcements were brought from England, new laws were enacted to expedite the conviction of rebels, and decisive action was taken in the epicenters of the revolt. Delhi was recaptured in September 1857, leading to the trial and life imprisonment of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, and his wife. Despite this setback, resistance persisted, and the British faced fierce opposition for two years. Lucknow fell in March 1858, followed by the defeat and death of Rani Lakshmibai and Rani Avantibai. Tantia Tope continued guerrilla warfare in central India until his capture and execution in April 1859. The defeat of rebel forces prompted desertions, but the British offered incentives for loyalty, promising traditional land rights to compliant landholders and safety to rebels who surrendered without harming British personnel. Nonetheless, hundreds of rebels, including sepoys, nawabs, and rajas, were tried and executed.
The British forces initially found it difficult to break through the heavy fortification in Delhi. On 3 September 1857, reinforcements arrived – a 7- mile long siege train comprising cartloads of canons and ammunition pulled by elephants.
After the British regained control of India by the end of 1859, significant changes were implemented in their governance approach:
- The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred authority from the East India Company to the British Crown, appointing a Secretary of State for India and establishing the India Council to advise them. The Governor-General was titled Viceroy, representing direct Crown authority.
2. Ruling chiefs were assured their territories wouldn’t be annexed, but they had to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
3. Recruitment changes in the army favored European soldiers over Indians, and soldiers were sourced from Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans rather than regions like Awadh and Bihar.
4. Muslims faced suspicion, and their land was often confiscated, as they were deemed responsible for rebellion.
5. The British pledged to respect Indian customs and religion, while policies safeguarded landlords’ rights over their lands.
6. These adjustments signaled a new era in Indian history post-1857.
