Summary
Chapter-2
Mughal Fragmentation and British Ascendancy
Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 marked the decline of Mughal power, leading to the emergence of powerful regional kingdoms. By the mid-18th century, Delhi’s authority waned, paving the way for the rise of the British East India Company. Initially traders, the Company’s strategic alliances, military prowess, and economic interests gradually transformed it into the dominant force in India.
East India Company’s Charter and Competition
In 1600, the East India Company secured a charter from Queen Elizabeth I, granting it exclusive trading rights with the East. This privilege allowed the Company to monopolize trade routes and seek out profitable goods to bring back to Europe. Despite this advantage, European competitors, including the Portuguese, Dutch, and French, also sought to establish their presence in the lucrative Eastern markets.
Rivalry and Conflict in the Indian Ocean
Competition among European trading companies intensified as they vied for the same valuable commodities from India, such as cotton, silk, and spices. This fierce rivalry often led to confrontations, including naval battles, blockades, and the fortification of trading posts. However, these efforts to secure markets and protect trading interests inevitably entangled the trading companies in political conflicts with local rulers, blurring the lines between trade and politics.
East India Company’s Expansion into Bengal
The East India Company’s first factory was established on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651, serving as a base for its traders, or “factors.” Over time, the Company expanded its presence, persuading merchants to settle near the factory. In 1696, the Company began constructing a fort around the settlement and obtained zamindari rights over three villages, including Kalikata, which later evolved into the city of Calcutta (Kolkata). Despite efforts to manipulate privileges, such as securing duty-free trade rights, tensions with local authorities, like the Nawab of Bengal, arose over revenue disputes.
Conflict Escalates Between Company and Bengal Nawabs
Throughout the early 18th century, tensions between the East India Company and the nawabs of Bengal heightened. Successive nawabs, including Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Sirajuddaulah, resisted Company demands, accusing it of undermining their authority, refusing to pay taxes, and encroaching on their territories. The Company, on the other hand, argued that the nawabs’ demands hindered trade and sought to expand its settlements and fortifications to bolster its position.
The Climax: Battle of Plassey
The escalating conflict culminated in the pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757. Sirajuddaulah, the Nawab of Bengal, besieged the English factory at Kassimbazar and subsequently marched on Calcutta. In response, Company officials in Madras dispatched forces led by Robert Clive to confront Sirajuddaulah. Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, switched sides, ensuring victory for the Company. The Battle of Plassey marked a significant turning point as it was the Company’s first major triumph in India.
Aftermath and Company’s Ascendancy
Following Sirajuddaulah’s defeat, Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab of Bengal. However, the Company’s aspirations extended beyond puppet rulers, leading to further conflicts and depositions of nawabs who resisted Company demands. Eventually, in 1765, the Mughal emperor granted the Company the Diwani of Bengal, providing access to Bengal’s vast revenue resources. This newfound financial stability enabled the Company to fund its operations, purchase goods in India, and solidify its control over Bengal.
Rise of the “Nabobs”
Following the Battle of Plassey, Company officials gained immense wealth and power in India. Robert Clive, in particular, accumulated a significant fortune, becoming emblematic of the lavish lifestyle adopted by many Company servants. However, not all officials enjoyed such success; many succumbed to disease or perished in conflicts. Despite the varied experiences, those who returned to Britain with wealth were often viewed as social climbers, earning them the moniker “nabobs,” derived from the Indian term nawab. While some nabobs faced ridicule in British society, others flaunted their riches, symbolizing the allure and pitfalls of colonial enterprise.
Expansion of Company Rule
The East India Company employed multifaceted strategies to expand its dominion over Indian territories from 1757 to 1857. Rather than resorting to direct military conquests, the Company utilized political, economic, and diplomatic maneuvers to assert influence before annexing regions. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company appointed Residents in Indian states, tasked with advancing its interests. Through these agents, the Company interfered in internal affairs, influencing succession and administrative appointments. Additionally, the Company imposed “subsidiary alliances,” depriving Indian rulers of independent armed forces and compelling them to pay for Company protection. Failure to comply often resulted in territorial penalties, as seen in the annexation of Awadh’s territory in 1801 due to non-payment for subsidiary forces. Similarly, Hyderabad ceded territories under comparable circumstances.
The Company’s Confrontation with Mysore
In response to perceived threats to its interests, the East India Company engaged in direct military conflict, exemplified by its encounters with the southern Indian state of Mysore. Under the leadership of formidable rulers like Haidar Ali and his renowned son Tipu Sultan, Mysore had become a significant power in the region. Tipu Sultan’s policies, including the cessation of certain exports and alignment with the French, incurred the Company’s wrath. This led to four wars between Mysore and the Company, culminating in the Battle of Seringapatam, where Tipu Sultan met his demise, and Mysore came under Company control.
The Maratha Challenge and Company Expansion
Similarly, the Company sought to curb Maratha power, initiating a series of conflicts known as the Anglo-Maratha Wars. With the Marathas fragmented into different states under various chiefs, the Company gradually subdued them through warfare and treaties. By the end of the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the Company had secured dominance over territories south of the Vindhyas, consolidating its authority in the region.
Claiming Paramountcy
Under the leadership of Lord Hastings, the Company embraced an aggressive policy of territorial expansion, asserting its paramountcy over Indian states. This policy justified the annexation or coercion of any kingdom perceived to threaten Company interests. Despite resistance from Indian rulers like Rani Channamma and Rayanna, who led anti-British movements, the Company’s pursuit of paramountcy persisted.
Expansion and Conflict in the Northwest
Concerned about Russian expansionism, the Company turned its attention to securing control over the northwest region of India. Wars were waged with Afghanistan and Sindh to establish indirect Company rule. The annexation of Punjab, however, faced resistance under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. After his demise, prolonged conflicts with the Sikh kingdom culminated in the annexation of Punjab in 1849, further expanding Company territories.
The Doctrine of Lapse and Annexations
Under Lord Dalhousie’s governorship from 1848 to 1856, the East India Company implemented the Doctrine of Lapse, which stipulated that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, their kingdom would be annexed by the Company. This policy facilitated the annexation of several Indian states, including Satara, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur, and Jhansi. Additionally, Awadh was annexed in 1856, with the Company justifying its actions by claiming a duty to relieve the region from alleged misgovernment. These annexations, particularly the deposition of the Nawab of Awadh, fueled discontent and contributed to the outbreak of the 1857 revolt.
Establishing New Administrative Structures
During Warren Hastings’ tenure as Governor-General from 1773 to 1785, the East India Company solidified its administrative control over British territories in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras. These territories were organized into Presidencies, each governed by a Governor, with the Governor-General serving as the supreme authority. Hastings introduced administrative reforms, notably in the realm of justice, including the establishment of criminal and civil courts in each district. Despite challenges such as differing interpretations of local laws, efforts were made to create uniform legal standards, with the compilation of Hindu and Muslim law codes.
Evolution of the Company’s Military
The East India Company’s military strength played a pivotal role in consolidating its colonial rule in India. Initially relying on the Mughal model of cavalry-dominated armies supplemented by peasant infantry, the Company gradually transitioned to a professional army known as the sepoy army. As warfare technology evolved, emphasis shifted from cavalry to infantry regiments, and soldiers underwent European-style training and discipline. However, this transformation posed challenges, as it required soldiers to reconcile their traditional identities with the regimented military culture imposed by the Company.
Transition to Colonial Power
By the mid-19th century, the East India Company had transformed from a trading entity into a territorial colonial power, exerting direct rule over a significant portion of the Indian subcontinent. The introduction of steam technology facilitated faster travel to India, enabling more British individuals and families to migrate to the region. By 1857, the Company controlled approximately 63% of the territory and 78% of the population of the Indian subcontinent, consolidating its dominance over the region.