Summary
Chapter-4
In the sprawling expanse of the Indian subcontinent, ruling over diverse cultures, languages, and peoples posed an immense challenge during the Middle Ages. The Mughals, tracing their lineage to both Genghis Khan and Timur, achieved a feat that had seemed impossible. From their power centers in Agra and Delhi, they steadily expanded their dominion until, by the seventeenth century, they controlled nearly the entire subcontinent. This marked a departure from the transient successes of their predecessors.
Who Were the Mughals? The Mughals, despite their strong Mongol and Timurid heritage, were cautious about embracing the term “Mughal” due to its association with the brutal conquests led by Genghis Khan. Instead, they took pride in their Timurid ancestry, a connection that was commemorated pictorially by each ruler. Timur, who captured Delhi in 1398, became a revered figure in their lineage.
Military Triumphs and Succession Traditions Babur, the progenitor of the Mughal Empire, embarked on a remarkable journey. Forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of the Uzbegs, he wandered for years before establishing his rule in Kabul in 1504. The pinnacle of his conquests came in 1526 when he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the Battle of Panipat, capturing Delhi and Agra.
The Mughals departed from the traditional practice of primogeniture, where the eldest son inherits the estate. Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, dividing the inheritance among all sons. This departure marked a distinctive feature of Mughal succession practices, promoting a more equitable distribution of power among the heirs.
Relations with Other Rulers and Marriages with Rajputs The Mughal rulers, while often engaged in campaigns against rulers who resisted their authority, also witnessed the voluntary inclusion of many regions into their dominion. The Rajputs, a prominent warrior community, exemplified this dual dynamic. Many Rajputs willingly allied with the Mughals, forming matrimonial connections by marrying their daughters into Mughal families and receiving prestigious positions in return.
However, not all Rajput states embraced Mughal suzerainty. The Sisodiya Rajputs of Mewar resisted Mughal authority for an extended period. When eventually defeated, they received honorable treatment. This nuanced approach of defeating adversaries without humiliating them allowed the Mughals to extend their influence over diverse kingdoms and chieftains.
Mansabdars, Jagirdars, and Zat Ranking As the Mughal Empire expanded, its rulers recruited individuals from diverse backgrounds into the imperial service. From a core of Turkish nobles (Turanis), the Mughals incorporated Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas, and other groups. Those enlisted in the Mughal service were designated as mansabdars.
The term “mansabdar” referred to an individual holding a “mansab,” indicating a position or rank. This system acted as a grading mechanism, determining rank, salary, and military responsibilities. The critical factors in this grading system were the numerical values assigned to “zat,” with higher values denoting more prestigious positions and larger salaries.
Mansabdars held military responsibilities that required them to maintain a specified number of cavalrymen, known as “sawar.” The revenue generated from their assigned territories, known as jagirs, served as their salary. However, by the reign of Aurangzeb, issues such as an inflated number of mansabdars and a mismatch between granted sums and actual revenues collected began to surface. This imbalance created a shortage of jagirs, prompting many jagirdars to extract as much revenue as possible during their tenure. This situation had detrimental effects on the peasantry.
Zabt and Zamindars One of the primary sources of income for the Mughal rulers was the tax on agricultural produce. The revenue was collected through intermediaries known as zamindars, who could be local headmen or powerful chieftains. Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, implemented a system known as “zabt,” which involved a meticulous survey of crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas for a ten-year period (1570–1580). Based on this data, taxes were fixed in cash for individual crops in different revenue circles.
While zabt was successful in areas where land surveys were feasible, it faced challenges in provinces like Gujarat and Bengal. In certain regions, the zamindars wielded considerable power, and exploitation by Mughal administrators sometimes led to rebellions. These revolts, often involving both zamindars and peasants of the same caste, emerged as significant challenges to Mughal authority, particularly towards the end of the seventeenth century.
Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari Akbar, recognizing the need to document his reign, commissioned Abul Fazl, a close friend and courtier, to write a comprehensive history. The result was the three-volume Akbar Nama, with the third volume, Ain-i Akbari, dedicated to Akbar’s administration, household, army, revenues, and the geography of the empire. This unique historical account offered rich statistical details on various aspects of Mughal society, including crops, yields, prices, wages, and revenues.
Nur Jahan’s Influence and Sulh-i Kul Nur Jahan, the wife of Emperor Jahangir, wielded significant influence in the Mughal court. The emperor honored her by striking silver coins bearing both his titles and the inscription “struck in the name of the Queen Begum, Nur Jahan.” This was a testament to the powerful role she played in the Mughal court.
Jahangir described his father Akbar’s policy of “sulh-i kul,” meaning universal peace, as a commitment to religious tolerance. It allowed people of different religions to coexist peacefully, with Sunnis and Shias praying together in one mosque, and Christians and Jews in one church.