Summary
Chapter-3
Spotlighted the Kaveri delta’s prominence in kingdoms, omitting mention of Delhi as a capital until the twelfth century. Initially governed by the Tomara Rajputs and later the Chauhans, Delhi evolved into a key commercial center. The Delhi Sultanate’s establishment in the thirteenth century marked the city’s transformative journey into a significant capital.
Tawarikh: Chronicles of Delhi Sultans The historical accounts during the Delhi Sultanate, known as tawarikh, were authored in Persian. These writings, created by learned individuals such as secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers, served to chronicle events and offer governance advice to rulers, emphasizing the significance of just rule.
Fakhr-i Mudabbir and the Circle of Justice Fakhr-i Mudabbir, in the thirteenth century, highlighted the interconnectedness of a king’s survival, soldier livelihood, peasant prosperity, and revenue collection. Birthright and Gender Distinctions: Notably, tawarikh authors, mostly residing in cities like Delhi, wrote for Sultans, anticipating substantial rewards. They advocated for preserving an “ideal” social order, rooted in birthright and gender distinctions, though these ideas weren’t universally accepted.
Raziyya’s Rule and Gender Challenges In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, assumed the throne, acknowledged for her abilities. However, societal discomfort and noble resistance led to her removal in 1240. Birthright is the concept of inheriting certain privileges based on family lineage. It implies that certain individuals are entitled to govern or hold special rights simply because of their birth into specific families. Gender distinctions refer to the social and biological differences between men and women, often used to justify perceived superiority.
Minhaj-i Siraj’s Critique and Rulers’ Strategies Minhaj-i Siraj criticized Raziyya’s rule as it challenged the traditional gender hierarchy, questioning how she possessed excellent qualities as a woman. Raziyya emphasized her lineage on inscriptions. In contrast, Rudramadevi adopted a male persona, and Didda, the ruler of Kashmir, embraced the title “didi” from her subjects.
The Khaljis and Tughluqs: A Closer Look at Administration In the consolidation of the expansive Delhi Sultanate, rulers like Iltutmish chose a unique approach to governance. Instead of relying on aristocrats, they appointed bandagan, special slaves trained for political roles. Dependent on their master, these trusted individuals played crucial roles in the kingdom’s administration. Delhi Sultans like the Khaljis and Tughluqs used bandagan and elevated humble-born individuals to prominent roles, causing political instability. While loyal to their masters, these appointees often conflicted with the new monarch, leading to criticism from elites and Persian tawarikh authors for appointing “low and base-born” officials.
Muqtis, Iqtas, and Fiscal Control The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs, like their predecessors, appointed military commanders as governors, known as muqtis, overseeing iqta territories. Muqtis led military campaigns, maintained law and order, and collected revenues, paying soldiers from these funds. During Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq’s reigns, strict control measures were imposed, including non-hereditary offices and short-term assignments. The state-appointed accountants ensured proper revenue collection.
Challenges in Expansion and Subjugation The Delhi Sultans extended control by subduing local chieftains, canceling their tax rights, and imposing taxes on cultivation, cattle, and houses. However, vast regions remained beyond their control, challenging effective governance. Some regions, particularly forested areas, remained inaccessible to Sultanate forces. Local chieftains asserted their rule in these territories, resisting penetration by Delhi Sultans. Although rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq occasionally exerted control, such dominance proved temporary in these challenging terrains.
Mongol Threat and Administrative Complexities The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, invaded Transoxiana in 1219, marking the beginning of threats to the Delhi Sultanate. Subsequently, during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and early Muhammad Tughluq, Mongol attacks intensified, compelling the rulers to maintain a substantial standing army in Delhi. This presented significant administrative complexities.
Chieftains and Their Fortifications: Battuta’s Account In the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta, a traveler from Morocco, described how Indian chieftains fortified themselves in mountains, rocky terrains, and bamboo groves. Indian bamboo, unlike the hollow variety, was sturdy and resistant to fire due to its intertwined structure. Chieftains lived within these bamboo forests, utilizing them as natural ramparts to protect their cattle and crops, relying on rainwater collected within. Conquering such strongholds required powerful armies equipped with specialized tools to cut down the resilient bamboo.
Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties governed Delhi and Agra until 1526. During this era, independent rulers emerged in Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and South India, establishing prosperous states. New ruling groups, including Afghans and Rajputs, gained prominence. Sher Shah Sur, who ruled from 1540 to 1545, challenged and defeated Mughal Emperor Humayun, capturing Delhi and establishing his own dynasty. Though short-lived, the Sur dynasty introduced an efficient administration, influencing the later Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar (1556–1605).