Summary
Chapter-2
Introduction: During the seventh century, significant changes in power dynamics occurred with the emergence of new ruling dynasties across the Indian subcontinent.
Landlords and Warrior Chiefs: Big landlords and warrior chiefs had established themselves in various regions, often acknowledged as subordinates or samantas by existing kings. Their roles included bringing gifts, attending courts, and providing military support.
Power Evolution: As samantas gained wealth and influence, some asserted their independence. An illustrative example is the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
Enterprising Families: In some instances, individuals from enterprising families utilized their military prowess to carve out kingdoms. Kadamba Mayurasharman and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, both Brahmanas, abandoned their traditional professions and successfully established kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan, respectively.
Administration in the Kingdoms
Titles and Power Sharing: The new kings adopted grandiose titles like maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) but often shared power with samantas, peasant communities, traders, and Brahmanas.
Revenue Collection: Resources for financing the king’s establishment, construction of temples and forts, and funding wars were obtained from producers, including peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans. Revenue collection involved claiming rent and taxes from traders.
Taxation System: The Cholas, who ruled in Tamil Nadu, left inscriptions referring to more than 400 tax terms. Notable among them were vetti (forced labor) and kadamai (land revenue).
Prashastis and Land Grants: Kings often rewarded Brahmanas with land grants, recorded on copper plates. These grants, accompanied by prashastis, highlighted the king’s achievements and depicted them as valiant warriors.
Warfare for Wealth
Control Over Kanauj: The rulers engaged in territorial conflicts for control over prized areas like the city of Kanauj. This extended struggle, involving the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties, is known as the “tripartite struggle.”
Temple Targeting: Demonstrating power and resources, rulers often targeted temples of rival kingdoms during warfare. Mahmud of Ghazni, for instance, raided the subcontinent multiple times, focusing on wealthy temples like Somnath in Gujarat.
The Cholas: Rise to Power
Vijayalaya’s Conquest: The rise of the Cholas began when Vijayalaya, belonging to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the ninth century.
Rajaraja and Rajendra: Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, ascended the throne in 985 and expanded Chola control over Pandyan and Pallava territories. His son, Rajendra I, continued these policies and even ventured into the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
Temple Construction: The Cholas constructed grand temples like Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, which became architectural and sculptural marvels. These temples also served as nuclei for settlements, fostering economic, social, and cultural life.
Chola Bronze Images: Among the crafts associated with Chola temples, the making of bronze images stood out. Chola bronze images, often depicting deities, gained recognition as some of the finest globally.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Developments in Agriculture: The Cholas’ achievements were closely tied to advancements in agriculture. The Kaveri delta, cleared of forests and leveled for cultivation, witnessed large-scale agriculture from the fifth or sixth century.
Irrigation Methods: Effective irrigation methods were crucial for agriculture. Wells, tanks, and canals were constructed to ensure water supply, especially in areas like the delta region, where two crops were often grown annually.
Administration of the Empire
Administrative Units: The administration was organized around settlements of peasants (ur) forming larger units called nadu. Village councils and nadu performed administrative functions, including justice dispensation and tax collection.
Types of Land: Chola inscriptions outlined different categories of land, such as vellanvagai (non-Brahmana peasant proprietors), brahmadeya (land gifted to Brahmanas), and devadana (land gifted to temples).
Associations and Inscriptions: Associations like sabha and nagarams played administrative roles. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur detailed organizational structures, revealing committees for irrigation, gardens, temples, etc.
Inscriptions and texts
Who could be a member of a sabha? The Uttaramerur inscription lays down:
All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be owners of land from which land revenue is collected. They should have their own homes.
They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.
They should have knowledge of the Vedas.
They should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest.
If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member of another committee. Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, and those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections.
While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men, here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth- century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives of ordinary men and women.
Everyday Life: Periyapuranam Excerpt
Ordinary Lives: An excerpt from the Periyapuranam provided a glimpse into the everyday lives of ordinary people on the outskirts of Adanur, portraying scenes of agrarian laborers and their surroundings.